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of context playing a decisive role in the choice
of language is firmly established, we can be-
gin to introduce varieties of the language used
in different contexts. Many course-books pro-
vide learners with plenty of opportunities to
develop their own context for the language
presented, for example activities like “odd one
out, filling-in exercises, dialogues” etc” [8,
14].
Another factor that teachers should bear
in their minds is to keep the lessons simple.
They often try to make our lessons varied.
This is good but can lead to misunderstanding.
The lesson can be varied by doing many ac-
tivities on different topics. However, this can
mean teachers may produce a lesson, which is
a disaster, too many activities, and changing
the activities all the time can destroy the les-
son well. The children’s minds have to jump
from one topic to another with not much time
to let things sink in effectively. The important
things that teachers should realize are the fol-
lowing:
- The teacher will not help the children
to develop their capacity to concentrate if he
or she jumps inconsequentially from one topic
to the next.
- There are ways of varying the oral
work so that it is making different demands on
the children and therefore feels different even
when the topic remains the same.
Variation does not only mean changing
the topics and materials but also the change of
work teachers do. Variation comes in the
forms of activity. Using different methods and
ways of teaching should become a regular part
of the lessons. Teachers can re-use materials
all the time, they can come up with new things
but always the activities should be simple in
principle. Then they can transfer to different
topics and situations. “Because you use them
regularly you will quickly get to know the best
way to set them up with your classes. Because
the classes know them, they will take to them
easily when they appear.... They can become
truly the core of your language teaching” [9,
38].
When teaching young learners, the
teacher has to be strong at the knowledge but
also needs to connect with the children. They
need to feel the teacher likes them and wants
to teach them something new. In case of teach-
ing young learners, the results are seen easily
and the learners at this age are very grateful
when someone invests time in them. The
teacher has to know his or her pupils. It is im-
portant to understand their needs, their expec-
tations with which each child comes to the
lessons, also ways how to motivate them and
last but not least their learning style. All this
the teacher is learning while working with the
learners. The teachers get to know their fami-
lies, their hobbies and interests and just basic
information about the learners. Also, espe-
cially nowadays, teachers have to consider the
learning disabilities too. There are more and
more children with these problems and teach-
ers need to help them to enjoy the lessons and
help them to learn too. The teacher needs to
understand their differences, their cultural and
family background etc. Understanding the per-
sonality of a young learner plays an important
role in effective teaching.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Colin Campbell, Hanna Kryszewska.
Learner-Based Teaching // Resource Books
for Teachers. Oxford UniversityPress. 2008,
126 p.
2. Jill Hadfield, Charles Hadfield. Presenting
New Language // Oxford Basics. Oxford
University Press. 2003, 70 p.
3. Cameron, Lynn. Teaching Languages to
Young Learners. Cambridge University
Press. 2002,
4. Ur, Penny, Marion Williams, and Tony
Wright. A Course in Language Teaching:
Practice and Theory. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1996.
5. Judie Haynes. Vocabulary Instruction for
English Language Learners. Essential
teacher, 2008.
6. Kari Miller. EFL Vocabulary Teaching
Tips. Direct Teaching Activities for Second
Language Learners, 2007.
7. Cohen, A. D. Strategies in learning and us-
ing a second language. - London: Longman,
1998.
8. Ellis, N. C. Vocabulary acquisition: Word
structure, collocation, word-class, and
meaning. Vocabulary: Description, acquisi-
tion and pedagogy. - Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1997.
9. Haines S. Projects for the EFL Classroom:
Resource materials for teachers. – Walton-
on-Thames: Nelson, 1991.
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УДК 811.111
THE COMMON CURRENT PROBLEMS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
Platov V.
Due to changes in our state education
standards and the gradual transition to 12-year
education schools it makes sense to rethink the
basic trends of teaching foreign languages,
particularly English as a mean of intercultural
communication. On the other hand, the new
program of educational institutions in foreign
languages has identified the main purpose of
teaching foreign languages in secondary
school as the development of the individual
student, who can act as a subject in cross-
cultural communication in the target language.
This is possible if a student forms the knowl-
edge of language structure, the very important
place here takes the grammar. In spite of this it
must be admitted that the formation of com-
munication skills is not possible without inte-
grated development of other linguistic re-
sources. That does not diminish the impor-
tance of grammar as a linguistic mean. Educa-
tion grammatical utterance design is one of the
prerequisites of practical mastery of a foreign
language at school. Available in the scientific
and methodological literature, a significant
amount of work on the grammatical aspect of
learning at an early stage of secondary school
proves the importance of the problem and si-
multaneously the difficulty of choosing the
best of it solution. "Initial phase sets the foun-
dation of skills in a foreign language, which
usually determines the success of their stu-
dents' mastery in the following classes" [Si-
monova N.M. Experimental study of the struc-
ture of motivation in mastering a foreign lan-
guage in high school: synopsis. ... Candidate
of Psychological Sciences, - M., 1982. - 15.].
The main difficulty of solving the problem in
teaching grammar during the initial phase is
connected to a large extent with the linguistic
and psychological factors that determine the
laws of interaction between the two language
systems: the system of the native language of
pupils and studied a foreign language. Age
characteristics of students 10-11 years old and
a high level of motivation play a positive role
here. Despite the considerable attention paid to
teaching grammar in high school (senior
stage), as experience shows, students do not
sufficiently clear understand the grammatical
forms and functions which they have learned
initially. As is shown by tests made in the re-
search paper that was done on the topic, the
level of awareness about grammatical skills is
not as high as was expected. And, as revealed
interview, there are grammatical errors in the
student’s speech. Consequently, the initial
stage should be considered very seriously.
Currently methodology science has developed
plenty amount different approaches and meth-
ods in teaching grammar. But choosing or de-
veloping the most appropriative method for
our region is still an unsolved problem be-
cause experience shows that our domestic
technique for secondary schools cannot cope
with that task, dictated by the present state of
affairs and state standards.
1. The common current issues and ques-
tions
In the current textbooks of English for
secondary
schools
Grammar-translation
method is reflected which is developed by
teaching staff, headed by Ayapova T.T. The
main priority of speech activity is reading,
which considerably achievable in public
schools. It is needed to develop all four func-
tional types of reading: the intro, lookup,
search and study. Reading serves as a condi-
tion for the successful implementation of other
kinds of speech activity, and thus as a tool of
the future specialist of a particular profile [1].
However, this approach leads to that inade-
quate attention is paid to the implementation
of the principle of communicative learning.
Building awareness of grammatical skills with
this approach is rather difficult. The volume of
communicative exercises for the operation of
grammatical material studied in the speech of
students is small. Many researchers in their
work has been paid much attention to the
problem of communication in the learning
process (Bim I. L, 1988, 12-27; Vaisburd
M.L., Passow E.I., 1991, 10-35; Evchenko
V.V, 36-38; Kolkova M.K, 19-21, etc.). The
methods of teaching grammar have been de-
veloped in the functional content; communica-
tion-based educational methods and kits in
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Russia have been designed (Klementyev T.B.,
Monk B., 1994; Kuzovlev V.P. Lapa N.M.,
Peregudova E. S., 1997, etc.), as well as a se-
ries of books abroad (Abbs B., Freebairn I.,
1991; Hutchinson T., 1994; Littlejohn A.,
Hicks D., 1996; Nolasco R., 1995, etc.). Some
positive results in terms of "elimination" of
grammatical structures learned in the speech
have been reached. However, the experience
of researchers indicates that the introduction,
reinforcement and activation of grammatical
material only on the basis of communication
approach does not provide a strong knowledge
of rules of form and form usage and do not
guarantee error-free speech. In this regard,
researchers have turned to cognitive tech-
niques common in 40-50s. However, without
critical analysis, without modification of these
techniques those techniques cannot be used in
the modern school, since the goal of learning
changed. Therefore, the most important is de-
velopment of an integrated approach to teach-
ing grammar, communicative and cognitive
approach, which determined the selection of
the content of teaching grammar for the initial
stage, providing an opportunity to communi-
cate in a foreign language, as well as solid
knowledge of grammatical phenomena by per-
forming a specially organized exercise.
So, the basic three questions that could
be addressed are:
1. Should be grammar taught or should
the conditions by which learners learn natu-
rally be simply created?
2. What grammar should be taught?
3. When should grammar be taught? Is
it best to teach grammar when learners’ first
start to learn a foreign language or to wait un-
til later when learners have already acquired
some linguistic competence?
Before answering these questions, a
definition of grammar teaching should be
given. Traditionally, grammar teaching is
viewed as the presentation and practice of dis-
crete grammatical structures. This is the view
promulgated in teacher handbooks. Ur (1996),
for example, in her chapter titled “Teaching
Grammar” has sections on “presenting and
explaining grammar” and “grammar practice
activities.” Hedge (2000) in her chapter titled
“Grammar” similarly only considers “present-
ing grammar” and “practicing grammar.” This
constitutes an overly narrow definition of
grammar teaching. It is certainly true that
grammar teaching can consist of the presenta-
tion and practice of grammatical items. But, as
will become apparent, it need not. First, some
grammar lessons might consist of presentation
by itself (i.e., without any practice), while oth-
ers might entail only practice (i.e., no presen-
tation). Second, grammar teaching can involve
learners in discovering grammatical rules for
themselves (i.e., no presentation and no prac-
tice). Third, grammar teaching can be con-
ducted simply by exposing learners to input
contrived to provide multiple exemplars of the
target structure. Here, too, there is no presen-
tation and no practice, at least in the sense of
eliciting production of the structure. Finally,
grammar teaching can be conducted by means
of corrective feedback on learner errors when
these arise in the context of performing some
communicative task.
So it leads to the following definition of
grammar teaching:
Grammar teaching involves any instruc-
tional technique that draws learners’ attention
to some specific grammatical form in such a
way that it helps them either to understand it
met linguistically and/or process it in compre-
hension and/or production so that they can
internalize it.
Should be grammar taught or should the
conditions by which learners learn naturally be
simply created?
At one time, it was assumed that the
only way of developing grammatical compe-
tence in a second language was through direct
teaching of grammar. We all held the "skill-
building" position: We learn language by first
learning the rules consciously, then practicing
them in output exercises, and we fine-tune our
knowledge of rules by getting our errors cor-
rected.
This axiom has been demoted to the
level of hypothesis: It has been argued that we
develop competence in second languages in
another way. We acquire the grammatical
rules of a language by understanding input
containing these rules. Our attention is not on
consciously learning the rules but on under-
standing the message, and we subconsciously
absorb the rules the same way children absorb
the rules of their first language. Conscious
knowledge of grammar has a limited function:
It is used to edit or monitor our second lan-
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guage production. We can use the conscious
grammar to make small grammatical repairs
when we have time, when we are thinking
about correctness, and when we know the
rules. Conscious knowledge is thus not use-
less, but it has a limited function.
The evidence for the "comprehension"
or "input" hypothesis includes studies showing
that students in comprehension-based second
language classes consistently outperform those
in traditional classes, at both the beginning
and intermediate levels, and includes studies
showing the powerful impact of recreational
reading (Krashen S., 2003).
There is also strong indirect evidence
supporting the comprehension hypothesis. The
grammatical system of any language is far too
complex to be consciously learned, and many
people develop high levels of competence
without formal instruction. Quite often, those
who have not reached the highest levels of
competence in second languages, despite what
seems to be a great deal of exposure, have not
been readers.
In recent years, a number of studies
have been published contesting the input hy-
pothesis. These studies typically show that
after we provide students with direct instruc-
tion, they improve in the use of the rules
taught, and show more improvement than
comparison groups. But in all studies;
1. Students were experienced "learners."
They expected direct teaching and were good
at it;
2. Students showed only modest im-
provement in the rules taught, even after a
considerable amount of practice, and even
these modest gains were typically short-lived;
3. Tests used were not communicative.
In all cases, students were focused on rules
during the test, had plenty of time to access
the rules, and were tested on rules they had
just covered in class [Krashen S., 2003].
4. Comparison groups in these studies
did not receive quality comprehensible input.
The results of these studies are thus
fully consistent with the input hypothesis.
Some grammar proponents argue that we must
teach grammar because accuracy is so impor-
tant.
The other researchers showed that
learners appeared to follow a natural order and
sequence of acquisition (i.e., they mastered
different grammatical structures in a relatively
fixed and universal order and they passed
through a sequence of stages of acquisition on
route to mastering each grammatical struc-
ture).This led researchers like Corder S.
(1967) to suggest that learners had their own
built-in syllabus for learning grammar. In line
with this, Krashen S. (1981) argued that
grammar instruction played no role in acquisi-
tion, a view based on the conviction that
learners (including classroom learners) would
automatically proceed along their built-in syl-
labus as long as they had access to compre-
hensible input and were sufficiently moti-
vated. Grammar instruction could contribute
to learning but this was of limited value be-
cause communicative ability was dependent
on acquisition.
As was said before there followed a
number of empirical studies designed to com-
pare the order of acquisition of instructed and
naturalistic learners (e.g., Pica, 1983), com-
pare the success of instructed and naturalistic
learners (Long, 1983) and examine whether
attempts to teach specific grammatical struc-
tures resulted in their acquisition (e.g., White,
Spada, Lightbown, & Ranta, 1991). These
studies showed that the order of acquisition
was the same for instructed and naturalistic
learners (although there were some differ-
ences), that instructed learners generally
achieved higher levels of grammatical compe-
tence than naturalistic learners and that in-
struction was no guarantee that learners would
acquire what they had been taught. These re-
sults were interpreted as showing that the ac-
quisitioned processes of instructed and natu-
ralistic learning were the same but that in-
structed learners progressed more rapidly and
achieved higher levels of proficiency. Thus,
some researchers concluded (e.g., Long, 1988)
that teaching grammar was beneficial but that
to be effective grammar had to be taught in a
way that was compatible with the natural
processes of acquisition. There is also increas-
ing evidence that naturalistic learning in the
classroom (as, e.g., in immersion programs)
does not typically result in high levels of
grammatical competence [Genesee, 1987]. In
short, there is now convincing indirect and
direct evidence to support the teaching of
grammar. Also, it remains the case that learn-
ers do not always acquire what they have been
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taught and that for grammar instruction to be
effective it needs to take account of how
learners develop their inter languages. As a
consequence, there is controversy regarding
both how inter language development occurs
and how instruction can facilitate this.
What grammar should be taught?
Assuming that a language should be
taught as a complex system and the instruc-
tional way is usually basic way to teach it is
the following question to discover. This ques-
tion can be broken down into two separate
questions:
1. What kind of grammar should be
base taught on?
2. Which grammatical features should
be taught?
Linguistics affords a broad selection of
grammatical models to choose from, including
structural grammars, generative grammars
(based on a theory of universal grammar), and
functional grammars. Basically syllabuses
have been based on structural or descriptive
grammars. Structural syllabuses traditionally
emphasized the teaching of form over mean-
ing [e.g., Lado, 1970]. Though the influence of
structural grammars is still apparent today,
modern syllabuses rightly give more attention
to the functions performed by grammatical
forms. Thus, for example, less emphasis is
placed on such aspects of grammar as sentence
patterns or tense paradigms and more on the
meanings conveyed by different grammatical
forms in communication. Some attempt was
once made to exploit the insights to be gleaned
from generative theories of grammar (see, e.g.,
Bright, 1965), but in general, syllabus design-
ers and teachers have not found such models
useful and have preferred to rely on modern
descriptive grammars, such as Celce-Murcia
and Larsen-CURRENT ISSUES IN THE
TEACHING OF GRAMMAR 87 Freeman’s
(1999) Grammar Book. This resource is espe-
cially valuable because it not only provides a
comprehensive, clear, and pedagogically ex-
ploitable description of English grammar but
also identifies the kinds of errors that L2
learners are known to make with different
grammatical structures. Such information is
important because it helps to identify which
structures and which aspects of a structure
require special attention. The Grammar Book
is also ideal in that it presents information not
only about linguistic form but also about the
semantic and discourse meanings realized by
particular forms. As Van Patten, Williams, and
Rott (2004) emphasize, establishing connec-
tions between form and meaning is a funda-
mental aspect of language acquisition. Thus,
any reference grammar that fails to describe
the form-meaning connections of the target
language must necessarily be inadequate. In
general, then, the choice of which type of
grammar to use as a basis for teaching is not a
major source of controversy; descriptive
grammars that detail the form meaning rela-
tionships of the language are ascendant.
In contrast, the choice of which gram-
matical structures to teach is controversial. At
one end of this continuum is Krashen’s mini-
malist position. Krashen (1982) argues that
grammar teaching should be limited to a few
simple and portable rules such as 3rd person –
s and past tense – ed that can be used to moni-
tor output from the acquired system. He bases
his argument on the claim that most learners
are only capable of learning such simple rules
- that more complex rules are generally not
learnable or, if they are, are beyond students’
ability to apply through monitoring. Krashen’s
claim, however, is not warranted. There is
now sample evidence that many learners are
capable of mastering a wide range of explicit
grammar rules. Green and Hecht (1992), for
example, found that university-level students
of English in Germany were able to produce
clear explanations for 85% of the grammatical
errors they were asked to explain, while over-
all the learners in their study (who included
secondary school students) managed satisfac-
tory explanations for 46% of the errors. Hu
(2002) found that adult Chinese learners of
English demonstrated correct met linguistic
knowledge of prototypical rules of six English
structures (e.g., for the definite article specific
reference constituted the prototypical rule) but
were less clear about the peripheral rules for
these structures (e.g., generic reference).
On the other hand it is the comprehen-
sive position: Teach the whole of the grammar
of the target language. This is the position
adopted by many course book writers (e.g.,
Walter & Swan, 1990) or authors of grammar
practice materials (e.g., Murphy, 1994). Such
a position would also seem unwarranted be-
cause learners are clearly capable of learning a
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